"dc-description","dc-date","dc-creator","Name","Chronology","Icon","dc-subject","dc-publisher","Type","Collection","Redirect","UserLevel","dc-title","Id"
"The Athenian Agora The Agora of Athens was the center of the ancient city: a large, open square where the citizens could assemble for a wide variety of purposes. On any given day the space might be used as a market, or for an election, a dramatic performance, a religious procession, military drill, or athletic competition. Here administrative, political, judicial, commercial, social, cultural, and religious activities all found a place together in the heart of Athens, and the square was surrounded by the public buildings necessary to run the Athenian government. These buildings, along with monuments and small objects, illustrate the important role it played in all aspects of public life. The council chamber, magistrates’ offices, mint, and archives have all been uncovered, while the lawcourts are represented by the recovery of bronze ballots and a water-clock used to time speeches. The use of the area as a marketplace is indicated by the numerous shops where potters, cobblers, bronzeworkers, and sculptors made and sold their wares. Aerial view of the Athenian Agora archaeological park, May 1975. Plan of the Agora at the height of its development in ca. A.D. 150. Lower colonnade of the Stoa of Attalos. Long stoas (colonnades) provided shaded walkways for those wishing to meet friends to discuss business, politics, or philosophy, while statues and commemorative inscriptions reminded citizens of former triumphs. A library and concert hall met cultural needs, and numerous small shrines and temples received regular worship. Given the prominence of Athens throughout much of antiquity, the Agora provides one of the richest sources for our understanding of the Greek world in antiquity. Early Geometric jewelry found in a burial. Used as a burial ground and for scattered habitation in the Bronze and Iron Ages, the area was first laid out as a public space in the 6th century B.C. Administrative buildings and small sanctuaries were built, and water was made available at a fountainhouse fed by an early aqueduct. Following the total destruction of Athens at the hands of the Persians in 480 B.C., the city was rebuilt and public buildings were added to the Agora one by one throughout the 5th and 4th centuries, when Athens contended for the hegemony of Greece. View looking west toward the Hephaisteion during a torchlight procession. It is during this “Classical” period that the Agora and its buildings were frequented by statesmen such as Themistokles, Perikles, and Demosthenes, by the poets Aeschylos, Sophokles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, by the writers Thucydides and Herodotos, by artists such as Pheidias and Polygnotos, and by philosophers such as Sokrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Together, they were responsible for creating a society and culture that has set a standard against which subsequent human achievements have been judged. The Agora was the focal point of their varied activities and here the concept of democracy was first developed and practiced. With the rise of Macedon under Philip II and Alexander the Great and during the subsequent Hellenistic period, all significant military, economic, and political power shifted to the East. In the spheres of education and philosophy, however, Athens maintained her preeminence. The Academy, founded by Plato, and the Lyceum, founded by Aristotle, continued to flourish. They were supplemented by the arrival of Zeno of Kition, who chose to lecture at the Agora in the Painted Stoa. Athenian cultural dominance continued throughout the Roman period, and the buildings added to the Agora reflect the educational role of the city, a role that ended only with the closing of the pagan philosophical schools by the Christian emperor Justinian in A.D. 529. With the collapse of security in the empire, Athens and the Agora suffered from periodic invasions and destructions: the Herulians in the 3rd century, the Visigoths in the 4th, the Vandals in the 5th, and the Slavs in the 6th. Following the Slavic invasion the area of the Agora was largely abandoned and neglected for close to 300 years. A panoramic view looking east from the Edward Capps Memorial belvedere on Kolonos Agoraios. The Stoa of Attalos (center) marks the eastern border of the Agora, and the Church of the Holy Apostles is just to the south (right).","","","Overview: The Archaeological Site","","","","","Webpage","Agora","http://agathe.gr/overview/the_archaeological_site.html","","","Agora:Webpage:fc9b73b7db94909d0225ed1082fee528"
"The Stoa of Attalos The Stoa of Attalos was originally built by King Attalos II of Pergamon (159–138 B.C.), as a gift to the Athenians in appreciation of the time he spent in Athens studying under the philosopher Karneades. What he gave the city was an elaborate stoa, a large two-storeyed double colonnade with rows of shops behind the colonnades. The building was made of local materials, marble for the facade and columns, and limestone for the walls; it measures 116 meters long and had 42 shops in all. The Stoa became the major commercial building or shopping center in the Agora and was used for centuries, from its construction in around 150 B.C. until its destruction at the hands of the Herulians in A.D. 267. Oblique view of the Stoa of Attalos with the Acropolis in the background. September 1956. The finished south end of the stoa at the time of the dedication. Clearly visible are the ancient stones that have been incorporated into the restoration of the building. The parapet has been painted as it was in ancient times. It was chosen to serve as the museum because it was large enough and because enough architectural elements were preserved to allow an accurate reconstruction; in addition, the northern end stood to the original roof line, allowing precision in recreating the height of the building. The building was reerected between 1953 and 1956. Quarries in Piraeus and on Mt. Penteli were opened so as to provide material similar to the original. As many as 150 workmen were employed, including 50 master masons, 20 carpenters, and 5 steelworkers. Where possible, remains of the original building were incorporated: the north end, the southernmost shops, part of the south wall, and the south end of the outer steps. Elsewhere the modern reconstruction rests on the original foundations and is an almost exact replica of the ancient building, with representative pieces of the original included in order to allow the visitor a chance to check the validity of the restoration for him- or herself. The Stoa of Attalos in November of 1952 The Stoa of Attalos in December of 1956 The reconstruction leads the visitor to appreciate why stoas were such a common form of public building among the Greeks, used in agoras, sanctuaries, near theaters, and wherever many people were expected to gather. The spacious colonnades provided shelter for literally thousands of people, protecting them from sun in summer and wind and rain in winter, while allowing in abundant light and fresh air. September 3, 1956. John L. Caskey, Director of the American School, delivering his remarks at the dedication ceremony. The ground floor is given over to public display, sculpture and large marbles in the colonnades, small objects in a long gallery consisting of ten of the original shops. The first floor is used for the excavation offices, workrooms, and archives as well as for additional storage. More storerooms were created in basements at foundation level. Dedicated on the 3rd of September, 1956, the Stoa celebrates its 50th anniversary as the Agora museum in 2006. The “Law against Tyranny” inscription (I 6524) was also erected in the colonnade before the dedication ceremony.","","","Overview: The Stoa of Attalos","","","","","Webpage","Agora","http://agathe.gr/overview/the_stoa_of_attalos.html","","","Agora:Webpage:71c84ed829c1179ef41bd6475cae8d41"
"History of the Agora The excavations of the Athenian Agora have uncovered about thirty acres on the sloping ground northwest of the Acropolis (Fig. 3). Material of all periods from the Late Neolithic to modern times has been excavated, shedding light on 5,000 years of Athenian history. The area was occupied long before it became the civic center of Athens. During the Late Bronze Age it was used as a cemetery, and some 50 graves have been found, dating from 1600 to 1100 B.C. These are mostly chamber tombs, with multiple burials. It continued in use as a cemetery throughout the Iron Age (1100–700 B.C.) and over 80 graves, both burials and cremations, have been found. Several dozen wells reflect the position of houses and indicate that the area was given over to habitation as well. Figure 3. Panorama of the Agora viewed from the south, with the Hephaisteion (Theseion) at left and the restored Stoa of Attalos (museum) at right. [King Cyrus speaks]: ""'I have never feared men who have a place set apart in the middle of their city where they lie and deceive each other. If I keep my health, the Hellenes will have their own sufferings to worry about, not those of the Ionians.' This threat he uttered against all Hellenes because they have agoras and buy and sell there; for the Persians themselves do not use agoras, nor do they have any."" (Herodotos 1.153) A gradual change from private to public land seems to have occurred during the middle of the 6th century, and the first certain public buildings or monuments (Southeast Fountain House [15], Altar of the Twelve Gods [2]) were erected in the 520s, during the tyranny of the Peisistratids. The creation of the new democracy in 508/7 B.C. led to the construction of the Old Bouleuterion on the site of the later Metroon [8], the setting of boundary stones [10], and, perhaps, the construction of the Royal Stoa [27]. The Persian destruction of 480/79 left the city a shambles, but the buildings in the Agora were repaired and many more were added in the 5th and 4th centuries to accommodate the Athenian democracy at its height. The Stoa Poikile [28], Tholos [6], New Bouleuterion [7], Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios [3], South Stoa I [14], Mint [16], and Lawcourts [23] were all added to the periphery of the great square, as were fountain houses, temples, and shops. The rise of Alexander of Macedon eclipsed Athens politically and the 3rd century B.C. saw Athens dominated by his successors. Recovery in the 2nd century was fueled by Athens’ reputation as the cultural and educational center of the Mediterranean, and the philosophical schools founded by Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus flourished. Three large stoas were built in the Agora in the 2nd century (Middle Stoa [17], South Stoa II [19], and Stoa of Attalos [22]) and the archive building (Metroon [8]) was rebuilt with a colonnaded facade. The influence of Rome becomes clear in Athens in 86 B.C., when Sulla besieged the city after it sided with Mithradates of Pontus. Despite this poor choice, the city flourished, thanks again to her reputation for education and culture. Temples were built in the Agora to accommodate worship of the imperial family [25], and a great Odeion [24] or concert hall was set down in the middle of the square late in the 1st century B.C. Athens prospered through the 2nd century under the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117–138) and is described in detail by the traveler Pausanias in the years around A.D. 150. Hard times began in the 3rd century, when the city was destroyed by northern invaders, the Herulians, in A.D. 267. When the city was rebuilt, the old Agora was not even within the new fortified circuit [20]. The area was given over to a variety of large villas in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. The buildings show the effects of further barbarian incursions: Visigoths under Alaric in A.D. 395, the Vandals in the 470s, and the Slavs in 582/3. The area was abandoned in the 7th century and only recovered with the growth of the city in the 10th century A.D.","","","AgoraPicBk 16 2003: History of the Agora","","","","","Webpage","Agora","http://agathe.gr/guide/history_of_the_agora.html","","","Agora:Webpage:d7aaf0c19ac7722e638ff25f14fc140b"
"Front of torso from waist up on right side preserved, and mouth with beard.; Man with long beard; probably from a bust as there are horizontal bands just below the breasts.; White slip; red, blue and yellow paint.; Red clay.","21 May 1936","","T 1221","","","","","Object","Agora","","","Philosopher Figurine Fragment","Agora:Object:T 1221"
"In nb. House G under Philosophical School C, Room 10 (SD).","15 Aug 1969","","1997.17.0006 (86-145)","","Agora:Image:1997.17.0006::/Agora/1997/1997.17/1997.17.0006.tif::2223::2622","Site | By Area | South | Areopagus Slopes | Areopagus North Slope | Greek Houses | Central House | General Views","","Image","Agora","","","Mosaic floor in the west room of the Classical Central House.","Agora:Image:1997.17.0006"
"In nb. House G under Philosophical School C, Room 10 (SD).","15 Aug 1969","","2012.58.0008 (86-145)","","Agora:Image:2012.58.0008::/Agora/2012/2012.58/2012.58.0008.jpg::1643::2048","Site | By Area | South | Areopagus Slopes | Areopagus North Slope | Greek Houses | Central House | General Views","","Image","Agora","","","Mosaic floor in the west room of the Classical Central House.","Agora:Image:2012.58.0008"
"Philosophical School C in notebooks. (SD)","24 Aug 1969","","1997.17.0071 (86-136)","","Agora:Image:1997.17.0071::/Agora/1997/1997.17/1997.17.0071.tif::1229::977","Site | By Area | South | Areopagus Slopes | Areopagus North Slope | Roman Remains | House C (Omega House) | General Views","","Image","Agora","","","South wall of the Philosophical School C. Cf. plan p. 2026.","Agora:Image:1997.17.0071"
"Philosophical School C in notebooks. (SD)","24 Aug 1969","","2012.57.1498 (86-136)","","Agora:Image:2012.57.1498::/Agora/2012/2012.57/2012.57.1498.jpg::2048::1633","Site | By Area | South | Areopagus Slopes | Areopagus North Slope | Roman Remains | House C (Omega House) | General Views","","Image","Agora","","","South wall of the Philosophical School C. Cf. plan p. 2026.","Agora:Image:2012.57.1498"